Risk Factors for Osteoporosis and Hip Fractures

Risk Factors for Osteoporosis and Hip Fractures Association between age and risk of osteoporotic fracture The study shows that of the factors considered here, the main determinant of risk of major osteoporosis and hip fracture are age, weight and BMI. The first question in this study sought to determine the association between age and risk of osteoporotic fracture. The mean age for 100 subjects in this study is 62.57. The result of this study show a significant increase in the risk of major osteoporosis and risk of hip fracture in regards to age. Bone mineral density is known to decrease rapidly as we get older. This finding is in agreement with Loh, Shong, Lan, Lo, Woon (2008) findings which showed that age is significantly associated with low BMD. This happened because with advancing age, there will be prominent lost of trabecular and cortical bone mass (Francis, 2001). Approximately 35-50% of trabecular bone in women and 15-45% among men are lost while 25-30% of cortical bone in women and 5-15% in men are lost due to the advancing age (Francis, 2001) The loss of bone mass will eventu ally lead to osteoporosis and this can be the major cause of osteoporotic fracture. According to Keng Yin Loh, King Hock Shong, Soo Nie Lan, Lo, and Shu Yuen Woon (2008) age-related osteoporotic fracture can be explained by the fact that prevalence of osteoporosis is higher among older adult above 50 years old. Another possible explanation regarding age-related bone loss include reduce osteoblast activity, increase osteoclast activity, or a lack of physical activity among elderly (Metcalfe, 2008). In this study, the percentage of subjects participating in physical activity is low that is 24% only. This shows that with the advancing age, the participation in physical activity had decrease. Without exercising, there is lack of mechanical stress put on the bone and the rate of bone mineralization reduced thus increase the chances of elderly people to get osteoporotic fracture. Association between weight/BMI with risk of osteoporotic fracture Another important finding was that there is significant difference of negative correlation between weight and BMI with risk of major osteoporosis and risk of osteoporotic fracture. However, the relationship between weight and risk of osteoporotic fracture was stronger than between BMI and risk of osteoporotic fracture. The findings of the current study are consistent with those of Unnanuntana, Gladnick, Donnelly and Lane (2010) of who found low body weight can contribute to osteoporotic fracture. People with low body weight are known to have low BMD. This is because as people get older, calcium and mineral contents in bones declines causing the elderly become low weight, less dense and prone to get fractured (Fawzy et al., 2011). The correlation between BMD and BMI was highly positive in clinical study among UAE population done by Fawzy et al., (2011). This finding supports previous research into this brain area which links BMD and BMI. Keng Yin Loh, King Hock Shong, Soo Nie Lan, Lo and Shu Yuen Woon (2008) reported a significant difference between lower body weight and risk of osteoporotic fracture. Thinner person was said to have low BMD. Salamat, Salamat, Abedi and Janghorbani (2013) in their journals explained the mechanism on how obesity gives positive effect on BMD status. One of the reason is that obesity helps to improve bone mass in men because of the conversion of androgen to estrogen (Salamat et al., 2013). gObesity causes physiological changes in humans due to the modification of circulating sex steroid hormone such as androgens and estrogens (Mammi et al., 2012). Testosterone is the major circulating androgen in men which is synthesized from cholesterol (Sinnesael, Boonen, Claessens, Gielen, Vanderschueren, 2011). Testosterone can be converted into estrogen via P 450 aromatase enzyme and it can be found in adipose tissue and bone (Merlotti, Gennari, Stolakis, Nuti, 2011). This can best explains why study done by (Mammi et al. (2012) reported a hi gh level of plasma estrogens in obese men. According to Sinnesael et al. (2011) conversion of androgen into estrogen can help to increase bone density especially on the cortical bone among men thus can reduce risk of osteoporotic fracture. This view is supported by Merlotti et al. (2011) who agreed that conversion of androgen into estrogen play a vital role in improving bone mass density either in young men or elderly. On the other hand, people with more weight can put more mechanical stress on bone. Compared to low body weight people, they have less mechanical stress exerted on bone. The positive effect of mechanical loading on bone conveyed by increased body weight can help to stimulates bone formation (Cao, 2011). This is because proliferation and differentiation of osteoblast and osteocytes increased with the increased of body weight (Cao, 2011). This finding corroborates the ideas of Shapses Riedt, (2006) who suggested that obesity gives higher bone mass by means of weight-bearing effect of excess soft tissue on the skeleton. Association between balance and risk of osteoporotic fracture Contrary to expectations, this study did not find a significant difference between functional reach and risk of hip fracture. There is no correlation between balance and risk of osteoporotic fracture. This is related to the result of de Abreu et al. (2009) who reported that there is no differences between body balance of osteoporotic women and non-osteoporotic women when measured with Berg Balance Scale and Time-Up and Go Test. It is difficult to explain this result but it might be related to a low demand task required to performed these tests yet it is not efficient to predict the risk of fall and functional impairment in elderly people (de Abreu et al., 2009). Furthermore, we choose to study older adult who have functional independent and free from pathologies. The subject in our study included a large sample on older adult aged 50-59 years old and 60-69 years old compared to elderly of 70-79 and 80-89 years old. This can be a reason why their balances are also good. This finding s upports previous research into this brain area which links age and related test performance in community-dwelling elderly people. People with a good functional independent need a more realistic choice of clinical tests in the examination of elderly patient (Steffen, Hacker, Mollinger, 2002). In addition, the present findings seem to be consistent with other research which foundthe relationship between balance, age and estimated fall risks. In a study among community-dwelling older adults done by Smee, Anson, Waddington, Berry, (2012) elderly aged 65 years old are being categorized to have a Low-Mild falls risk because they have better balance as compared to the older-old group. Therefore, a younger-old group is said to have a low fall risk that lead to a low risk of osteoporotic fracture. Strength and Weakness of the study The strength referred to as advantages of this study. In return, this study can be a good study to be reviewed and as references for related future study. Meanwhile, weakness corresponds to any lacking possessed that may interfere the findings or result. Strength The sample size was larger compared to previous study thus giving a more precise calculation. The forward reach test is easy, inexpensive and convenient to be applied to community-dwelling elderly with a good test-retest reliability and concurrent validity. Weakness This study only predicts future hip fracture without calculated the risk of vertebral fracture and proximal humeral fracture. This study only focuses on independently mobile community-dwelling older adult. The lack of more elderly aged 65 and above including those with poor proprioceptive control, vision and vestibular input may limit the generalisability of this study related to postural control. References Cao, J. J. (2011). Effects of obesity on bone metabolism. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research, 6(1), 30. doi:10.1186/1749-799X-6-30 De Abreu, D. C. C., Trevisan, D. C., Reis, J. G., da Costa, G. D. C., Gomes, M. M., Matos, M. S. (2009). Body balance evaluation in osteoporotic elderly women. Archives of Osteoporosis, 4(1-2), 25–29. doi:10.1007/s11657-009-0023-y Fawzy, T., Muttappallymyalil, J., Sreedharan, J., Ahmed, A., Alshamsi, S. O. S., Al Ali, M. S. S. H. B. B., Al Balsooshi, K. A. (2011). Association between Body Mass Index and Bone Mineral Density in Patients Referred for Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry Scan in Ajman, UAE. Journal of Osteoporosis, 2011, 876309. doi:10.4061/2011/876309 Francis, R. M. (2001). Falls and fractures. British Geriatrics Society, 30(4), 25–28. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24519586 Loh, K. Y., Shong, K. H., Lan, S. N., Lo, W.-Y., Woon, S. Y. (2008). Risk factors for fragility fracture in Seremban district, Malaysia: a comparison of patients with fragility fracture in the orthopedic ward versus those in the outpatient department. Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health / Asia-Pacific Academic Consortium for Public Health, 20(3), 251–7. doi:10.1177/1010539508317130 Mammi, C., Calanchini, M., Antelmi, A., Cinti, F., Rosano, G. M. C., Lenzi, A., †¦ Fabbri, A. (2012). Androgens and adipose tissue in males: a complex and reciprocal interplay. International Journal of Endocrinology, 2012, 789653. doi:10.1155/2012/789653 Merlotti, D., Gennari, L., Stolakis, K., Nuti, R. (2011). Aromatase activity and bone loss in men. Journal of Osteoporosis, 2011, 230671. doi:10.4061/2011/230671 Metcalfe, D. (2008). The pathophysiology of osteoporotic hip fracture. McGill Journal of Medicineà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯: MJMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯: An International Forum for the Advancement of Medical Sciences by Students, 11(1), 51–7. Retrieved from http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2322920tool=pmcentrezrendertype=abstract Salamat, M. R., Salamat, A. H., Abedi, I., Janghorbani, M. (2013). Relationship between Weight, Body Mass Index, and Bone Mineral Density in Men Referred for Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry Scan in Isfahan, Iran. Journal of Osteoporosis, 2013, 205963. doi:10.1155/2013/205963 Shapses, S. A., Riedt, C. S. (2006). Bone, Body Weight and Weight Reductionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯: What Are the Concerns? The Journal of Nutrition, 136(6), 1453–1456. Retrieved from http://jn.nutrition.org/content/136/6/1453.full Sinnesael, M., Boonen, S., Claessens, F., Gielen, E., Vanderschueren, D. (2011). Testosterone and the male skeleton: a dual mode of action. Journal of Osteoporosis, 2011, 240328. doi:10.4061/2011/240328 Smee, D. J., Anson, J. M., Waddington, G. S., Berry, H. L. (2012). Association between Physical Functionality and Falls Risk in Community-Living Older Adults. Current Gerontology and Geriatrics Research, 2012, 864516. doi:10.1155/2012/864516 Steffen, T. M., Hacker, T. A., Mollinger, L. (2002). Research Report Age- and Gender-Related Test Performance in Community-Dwelling Elderly Peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯: Six-Minute Walk Test , Berg Balance Scale , Timed Up Go Test , and Gait Speeds. Journal of American Pysical Therapy Association and de Fysiotherapeut, 82, 128–137. Retrieved from http://ptjournal.apta.org Unnanuntana, A., Gladnick, B. P., Donnelly, E., Lane, J. M. (2010). The assessment of fracture risk. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American Volume, 92(3), 743–53. doi:10.2106/JBJS.I.00919

Alternative Energy in Homes

Scientists predict that the day is not far off when the traditional energy resources of the world such as oil wells and water resources might some day dry off. This fact has created an acute awareness of finding alternate energy sources.With increasing population and the development of technology, energy is rapidly consumed in countries all over the world. More so in the United States which is one of the most technologically advanced, well developed and industrialized nation. The main source of energy are fossil fuels like crude oil.These are found to trigger global warming. Moreover, these energy sources take a very long time in formation and hence are likely to get scarce over the years. There is a growing demand for energy and as a result the rising trend in crude oil prices is bound to continue. To resolve the problems associated with cost, scarcity and pollution, there is the concept of using alternative energy sources. According to this concept, power is converted from differen t natural sources to produce heat and electricity.Some such alternative energy sources are sunlight, wind, and biomass fuel. Energy is used in homes, businesses, industry, and for traveling and transportation purposes. It has been found that while the industrial sector uses about one-third of the total energy, the residential and commercial sectors combined use about 40 percent of all energy. This includes all types of buildings such as houses, such as houses, offices, stores, restaurants, and places of worship. (Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2005, Washington, DC, July 2006) .A comfortable house in today’s modern society is one that uses lights, air-conditioning, TV, microwave, dishwasher and other appliances. More than half of the energy used for heating in single-family homes is natural gas, about one-fourth is electricity, and one-tenth is fuel oil (heating oil). Using alternative energy sources in homes is likely to reduce the overall ene rgy usage of the nation appreciably. Solar power involves transforming some of the sun’s massive thermal energy into electricity.There are two ways of using solar power as an alternative energy source in houses: photovoltaic (PV), where sunlight is directly converted into electricity via solar cells, and utilizing solarthermal power. In a photovoltaic cell, sunlight falls on a layer of semiconductors which in turn creates an electrical current. This is a proven technology that can be easily used in houses to provide heat and power. Electricity can be produced from solar power by placing solar panels on the roof. These panels consist of photovoltaic cells that can convert sunlight directly into electricity.A modern photovoltaic cell can convert almost 80% of the sunshine into electricity . Moreover, it is interesting to note that electricity that is produced through solar power during the day may be stored in batteries for use in the night. In turbines the sun’s heat ca n be used to convert water into steam and then utilize this steam to running turbines. The turbines in turn can be used to run generators, which produce electricity for the entire alternative energy home. According to Bryan Wong, to heat a home a solar panel can be installed on the roof where water is heated .The hot water is then stored in a big tank which in turn is used for a central heating system and also for hot running water. Another way to heat a home is to use solar collectors. The heat from the sun is then stored in specially designed effective collectors. Some of these collectors have shown the capacity to heat homes even in the middle of winter. The Solar Home Lighting system is a fixed installation designed for domestic application . The system comprises of Solar PV Module (Solar Cells), charge controller, battery and lighting system (lamps & fans).The solar module is installed in the open on roof/terrace – exposed to sunlight and the charge controller and batter y are kept inside a protected place in the house. The solar module requires periodic dusting for effective performance. Jeff Gilbert has found that the solar attic fan harnesses solar power to create electricity that will cool the attic by removing the same heat. The kit includes a 40-watt solar panel, a thermostat / controller and a 12-volt DC powered 11†³ diameter fan .The biggest barriers to increasing solar power generation are the cost, and the intermittent nature of the energy source. Solar power is likely to become more popular if technology can usher in cheaper PV cells and solar-thermal energy. Solar energy is much easier to use in the city area and so it is highly applicable for usage in Atlanta, Georgia. The roof solar-panels that are needed can be placed on the roof out of sight. Wind power is another powerful alternative energy source. To use wind power a windmill-type device can be installed on the house or nearby.The wind-mill powers a turbine that can be used to generate electricity. Just like in the case of solar power, wind power can be stored in batteries. Windmills have been used for the past few centuries and initially they were used to mill grain and pump out water from large beaks or lakes to gain land . Today windmills are used in homes to run small generators for home owners. These generators produce electricity to be used in running small home appliances. It would not be possible for using windmills within the city area because windmills generally need a lot of space.They are a few meters in diameter and fairly high. However, small-scale building-integrated wind turbines suitable for urban locations are currently being developed and will be available to install in homes and other buildings within the next few years. Hydropower can be tapped by using the power of running water to run generators. These generators in turn can store electricity which can be used for running the home appliances. This technique is also used in the past where waterwheels were used to grind grain into flour, just like windmills.But like the windmills this form of alternative energy is not feasible to use in the city area. The fourth technique is biogas. Biogas is produced naturally via the decomposition of different biomass. Biomass refers to plant matter, such as plants, trees, grasses, agricultural crops, and animal manure. Farmers can successfully use this method to produce biogas. The biogas can be used for heating to home or can even be used to cook. This form is also not common to use inside the city area. It is best used in houses closer to farms or within farms.Currently the most economical type of biomass for generating energy comes from residues, organic byproducts of food, fiber and forestry including sawdust, rice husks, wheat straw, corn stalks and bagasse (sugar cane residue). Chicken manure is also becoming an important fuel for generating electricity from biomass. In some cases, especially where the cost of biomass is very low, it is co-fired with a fossil fuel, such as coal, to lower the overall cost of the electricity produced. Currently, cofiring is the most economical form of electricity generation that is used in alternative energy homes .The typical American household spends about $1,400 annually on heat and electric utilities. Due to this huge cost, across the US some 185,000 households have switched from the local power company to their own homegrown, renewable energy. People are learning to heat their homes with a wood-burning stove. Wood burning stoves work on the principle of radiant heat coming directly off the stove. These stoves provide heat by having an electric motor blow the heat produced by the burning pellets into the room the stove is in much the same way a furnace would blow heat through ductwork.The fumes from pellet- and corn-burning stoves are typically vented directly through an exterior wall to the outside. Liquid propane is also used in some houses to run water heate r, dryer, and stove . At Belmont Avenue, Salvador Lamas the owner of the Taco Burrito King, decided to go solar when he found he was paying hard to heat 500 gallons of water every day. He installed solar panels on the roof of his Belmont Avenue building, and soon saved money by heating water directly with solar thermal. He also uses solar power to wash and cook vegetables. As a result, he saves close to $2,000 a month (Pink, 2005).A panel of state officials, utility executives, environmental advocates, business leaders and academics have been working on the issue of finding alternative energy for the state of Georgia. The Governor's Energy Policy Council has recently published a report that lays out the importance of taking a leadership role on alternative fuels. The report from the governor's council recommends that Georgia should â€Å"go native† by investing intelligently in untapped energy resources readily available in our own backyard. Among the most promising and profi table resources on the horizon are (Harris, 2006) :†¢ Trees and timber products. Georgia has many thousands of acres of pine trees that can provide the raw material for cellulosic ethanol, a type of biofuel that burns more cleanly than conventional fossil fuels. Ethanol derived from timber products requires less energy to manufacture than ethanol derived from corn. †¢ Biogas: Georgia's livestock and poultry could also prove a plentiful source of biogas, another renewable fuel. Animal wastes can be treated in special digesters that create methane gas, which in turn can be used to generate a cleaner form of electricity without adding to greenhouse gases.The main drawback in using alternative energy sources for home purposes is that one needs to invest in equipment to convert these sources into the energy needed. Thus while the price of an alternative energy home will be high, it must be noted that the expenses for such a home will be reduced. This would be an ideal home in w hich there is greater market value and reduced costs of living. The alternative energy home is the future in many ways. Bibliography: Pink H. Daniel. The New Power Generation. Wired Magazine. Issue 13. 05 May 2005. http://www. wired. com/wired/archive/13.05/solar. html? pg=2&topic=solar&topic_set= Wong, Bryan (2006). Are Alternative Energy Homes the Future? http://www. energyefficienthomearticles. com DIY (2006). Solar powered Attic Fan. http://www. diynetwork. com/diy/he_diagnostics/article/0,2037,DIY_13893_2277472,00. html EIA (2007). Uses of Energy in Homes. http://www. eia. doe. gov/kids/energyfacts/uses/residence. html GEDA (2003). Solar Home Light System. http://www. geda. org. in/solar/so_slr_hmlight. htm Radisson, Elizabeth (2007). Wood burning and Pellet Burning Stoves. http://www. energyefficienthomearticles.com/Article/Wood-Burning-and-Pellet-Burning-Stoves/1802 Harris V. Lyle. Our Opinion: Georgia can be energy pioneer. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Published on 01/2 1/07. http://www. ajc. com/search/content/opinion/stories/2007/01/21/edenergy0121. html Sarah E. Douglass. Special Report: Identifying the opportunities in Alternative Energy. https://a248. e. akamai. net/7/248/1856/29de4d06b10347/www. wellsfargo. com/downloads/pdf/about/csr/alt_energy. pdf Bryan Wong. Energy Efficient Homes. http://www. energyefficienthomearticles. com/ezineready. php? id=3906

Mockingbirds Life Styles

A child in 1930's Alabama had a life much different than the life of a child growing up in today's modern society. As opposed to today's standards, education was less civilized. Their home life was not as privileged or as entertaining, and their place in society was much more trivial, and planned out. The lifestyles of a 1930's Alabama youth were much different than today's modern child. In Harper Lee's Novel To Kill A Mockingbird, three youths struggle to grow up in post depression Maycomb, Alabama. Their school is, by today's standards, much less evolved. Not only were special needs not embraced, they were ignored. Whereas today's society has no problems adapting education so that everybody could learn. There were less career options for children as well. We live in a time where the idea is â€Å"You can be whatever you set your mind to.† However, the slogan 70 years ago was more like â€Å"You will be what we want you to be, and when we want you to be it, but only if you're white.† Luckily, education criteria have changed since then, as well as home life and society. Home life in the novel is very foreign to us. First of all, we don't have a cook or servant unless we are very wealthy. The Finch's had Calpurnia to fix their meals. There was more of a family closeness attitude back then too, whereas today families are often split up, and kids can become less and less attached to their families. Independence is a common denominator in both time periods. Rites of passage again, were another similarity in both time periods. Children had a very limited role in society back in post-depression Alabama. They hadn't much of a say in what they were going to be, nor their activities, opinions, or much else in life. When Jem and Scout passed by Mrs. DuBose's house, they were to be proper and polite when she was rude to them, where in today's society, there is a possibility that the youth could be rude, and suffer no consequences. Hence, life for a youth in 1930's had a different lifestyle than young people today. Education was not as systematic, home and family life was dramatically foreign, and they had a trivial place in society. Times have changed since then, and they will in the coming years.

Mass Incarceration Disparities, Reentry And Policy...

Mass Incarceration: Disparities, Reentry and Policy Implications Problem Description Incarceration rates have increased from 400,000 people in 1975 to 2.1 million in 2003; a fivefold increase, making the United States a leader in rates compared to other nations (Morenoff Harding, 2014). These numbers bear a great burden on individuals, families, and communities in various ways. First, with 700,000 individuals being released from prison annually comes difficulty in reentering society both socially and economically; difficulty finding work, education, strained relationships, and social stigma (Morenoff Harding, 2014). Second, the increasing rates of incarceration are disproportionately and unfairly impacting minorities, specifically African-Americans, and poor urban communities (Morenoff Harding, 2014). A New York Times article by Furman and Holtz-Eakin (2016) states that $80 billion dollars--$600 per household--is spent on corrections annually, or a 1,700 percent increase in the federal prison budget in just thirty years. These increases have a deep historical back ground, many complex and interweaving factors, and require urgent reform. Before diving into the relevant action steps, it is important to understand the history that led to this crisis. Thompson (2010), states that after World War II, cities were highly valued and popular until conflict, poverty, and distress led to the demise of these cities; thus increasing the value of suburbanShow MoreRelatedThe Flaws of Incarceration in America Essay1366 Words   |  6 Pagesinmates, and its incarceration rate is growing exponentially. The expense generated by these overcrowded prisons cost the country a substantial amount of money every year. While people are incarcerated for a number of reasons, the country’s prisons are focused on punishment rather than reform, and the result is a misguided system that fails to rehabilitate criminals or discourage crime. The ineffectiveness of the United States’ criminal justice system is caused by mass incarceration of non-violentRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration During The Age Of Colorblindness By Mic helle Alexander3956 Words   |  16 Pageshistory of Jim Crow is a story of white power, but it is also a story of black survival and resilience. The Jim Crow era lasted nearly a century because of the federal government and there is still work to be done today. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness, by Michelle Alexander, is a book about the discrimination of African Americans in today s society. One of Alexander s main points is the War on Drugs and how young African American males are targeted and arrestedRead MoreCriminal Justice Policy And Planning4719 Words   |  19 Pages Criminal Justice Policy Planning Table of Contents Executive Summary 3 Thesis 4 Analyzing the Problem 5 Plea Bargaining 5 Budget Issues 6 Racial Disparity 6 Chart on Racial Disparity 7 Goals and Objectives 8 Stakeholders for Mandatory Minimum Sentences 8 Stakeholders against Mandatory Minimum Sentences 8 Impact Model 9 Designing the Program 10 Program Implementation and Monitoring 11 Developmental Implementation Programs Offered 11 Implementation PlanRead MoreThe Problem Of Homelessness And The Housing Crisis Essay4360 Words   |  18 Pagespublic assistance and criminal justice. Mass incarceration, a growing problem in American society, is affecting an increasing number of children and families across multiple domains. While several recent studies have investigated the effects of paternal incarceration on family finances and parent-child relationships, there has been little research on the consequences for child housing stability. Even less is known about the mechanisms by which paternal incarceration affects child housing status. Given